What is normal?

In the relaxed, i.e. non-erect state, the horse’s penis normally remains within its protective sheath where it is held in place by muscles. When these muscles relax and/or the penis fills with blood and becomes erect, it becomes exposed. At the tip of the penis (the glans) is the opening of the urethra. This is surrounded by a deep ‘pocket’, or fossa. Apart from the glans, which is covered by a thin sensitive membrane, the rest of the penis (shaft) is covered by smooth, supple, well-oiled skin, much of which is normally folded within the prepuce. Debris from the normal secretions of the skin glands and normally-dying cells from the surface of the skin within the sheath may accumulate in these folds and in the urethral fossa and sinus. This accumulation of waxy material is called ‘smegma’. It may be black, grey or cream coloured in normal horses and has a slightly greasy feel. It occasionally forms into bean-shaped lumps which lodge in the urethral fossa and sinus. Some horses produce very little smegma whereas others produce large quantities. In such horses, smegma can often be seen staining the opening of the sheath and on the inside of the thighs and hocks.

The penis and sheath have a permanent population of normal bacteria on their surface, just as all skin surfaces do. These bacteria do not cause disease, they undoubtedly help maintain the health of the skin and may help prevent infection by controlling ‘unwelcome’ bacteria. The urethral fossa and sinus, in particular, can harbour potential venereal disease producing bacteria (specifically Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Taylorella equigenitalis). Infection with these organisms can cause venereal disease in mares following mating but rarely cause signs or symptoms of disease in the carrier stallion, who is usually infected by a carrier mare. When stallions become infected, these organisms may survive on the penile skin alongside of the ‘normal’ bacterial population and can then be very difficult to remove.

What harm can sheath washing do?

Although sheath washing sounds a good idea and has been recommended by horsemen universally over the years as an important routine equine management procedure, it can have a detrimental effect if the normal ‘ecological’ balance of skin bacteria is disturbed. Washing the penis and sheath with strong detergent solutions can remove the natural skin oils, resulting in dry penile skin which cracks as it folds and unfolds, causing irritation and damage followed by inflammation and secondary infection. If this infection is caused by bacteria which are easy to treat, the problem may resolve spontaneously once washing with detergent has stopped. Local (creams or ointments) or systemic (by injection or by mouth) antibiotic treatment may be necessary.

Repeated washing with antiseptic, i.e. antibacterial washes or detergent solutions can result in alteration or removal of the normal penile skin bacterial population. This may result in colonisation by unwelcome bacteria which are not normally present, either from the stable environment or following mating with a venereal disease carrier mare, and severe penile skin and sheath infections can result. The infection results in inflammation, swelling of local tissues and a profuse foul-smelling discharge which is much more unpleasant than smegma.

These infections can be extremely difficult to treat due to the resistant nature of some unwelcome bacteria. In such cases, prolonged treatment with specific systemic and topical antibiotics may be necessary, followed by a period of rest and then the application of a specially-prepared ‘normal’ penile skin bacterial broth culture to re-colonise the area. In some cases even this treatment may be unsuccessful and chronic infection may result in thickened cracked penile skin and extreme discomfort.

How should sheath washing be performed?

If your horse appears to have a healthy penis and sheath there is almost certainly no need to wash it at all. In horses which produce large amounts of smegma and appear uncomfortable, and in show horses or others where this would be considered unsightly, excess smegma can be wiped or rinsed away with warm clean water using simple soap which contains no antiseptics or detergents. A small amount of light mineral oil (such as baby oil) may help to loosen lumps and make excessive smegma easier to remove. It is important to be gentle and not abrade the skin and to rinse all trace of soap away. For healthy breeding stallions, rinsing the relaxing penis with warm clean water immediately on dismount is all that is required.

What are the symptoms?

When bladder rupture occurs at birth, signs usually develop within 2 or 4 days of life. Colts are affected more often than fillies. If leakage of urine follows infection of the urachus, signs can develop later, but within a month of birth. Symptoms are caused by the accumulation of urine in the abdominal cavity rather than it being voided normally. This results in pressure on the diaphragm and toxaemia as the waste products in the urine are reabsorbed into the foal’s blood. Affected foals usually pass smaller-than-normal volumes of urine and adopt a fairly characteristic straining posture with the legs stretched out and the back flat, (compared to straining seen with meconium impaction where the back is usually hunched). The abdomen becomes progressively more distended. The foal usually appears depressed and goes off suck. Respiratory rate becomes more rapid and breathing can become quite laboured particularly when the foal lies down as pressure builds up against the diaphragm. The heartbeat can become weak and rapid and cardiac arrhythmias (abnormalities in heart rhythm) can develop due to abnormalities in electrolyte levels in the blood. If left untreated, collapse and death usually follow.

How is the condition diagnosed?

The clinical signs of ruptured bladder can initially be vague. Correct diagnosis requires recognition of clinical signs and the results of one or more test procedures. Ultrasound scan examination of the abdomen may demonstrate a large volume of free fluid and is now the most efficient means of making an early diagnosis. Blood tests can be useful to look for increased levels of toxic substances, e.g. urea, and electrolyte abnormalities. A sample of peritoneal fluid can be taken from the abdomen and tested or compared to a blood sample to confirm that it is urine (has a similarly high urea and creatinine content to urine).

Other tests involve injection of a dye into the bladder via the urethra to see if it then appears free in the abdomen.

Where rupture follows infection of the urachus, or if other problems such as septicaemia (blood infection) exist, clinical signs may be more complex. Ultrasound scan examination is the most useful tool when looking for infection or abscess of the urachus.

What treatment is available?

When a ruptured bladder or urachus is diagnosed, the foal must be prepared for surgical repair. However, prior to anaesthetizing the foal for surgery it is essential to provide medical treatment to correct electrolyte imbalances, treat concurrent infection and restore fluid levels if dehydration is present. The abdomen may be ‘washed’ by repeated addition and drainage of sterile saline fluid via needles or catheters, to remove the toxic urine. This is called ‘peritoneal lavage’. Once the foal’s condition has been stabilised, surgery is performed to remove damaged and/or infected bladder and urachal tissue and then to close the defect. Antibiotics are usually given for several days afterwards to remove infection. The foal can be returned to its dam immediately and should be allowed to suck normally. If it remains off suck, supportive treatment such as intravenous fluids and/or administration of mare’s milk or milk replacer by stomach tube may be needed.

Are there any long-term effects?

Normally, provided an accurate diagnosis is made early and once the foal is prepared correctly and the bladder defect is repaired successfully, recovery is rapid and complete. Rarely, adhesions may occur between the bladder and other intra-abdominal organs causing colic symptoms. Full recovery will depend on successful treatment of any other conditions that may also be present such as septicaemia and joint ill.

• For mares who are ill or die at or soon after foaling.
• For mares with a history of being aggressive to their foals.
• For mares who need to be transported for long distances for mating or competition and where the owner/manager does not want the foal to travel with her.
• When foals have been ill soon after birth and separated from their mare for treatment, the mare may no longer produce milk and/or may lose interest in her foal.
• The mare may not produce enough milk to feed her foal, either due to her age, some illness or problems with her mammary glands.

Choice of foster mare

Any mare that is to be used as a foster mare must be of a suitable temperament i.e. relatively quiet, well handled and a good mother who is unlikely to harm her new foal, once bonded. She must also be able to produce the volume of milk necessary to nourish and encourage the normal growth of her new foal. Draft cross mares make particularly good foster mares because of their calm temperament and the volume of milk that they usually produce. The foster mare must be disease free and preferably vaccinated against tetanus and equine influenza and Equine Herpesviruses. Even when a foster mare is required following an emergency, when speed is of the essence, the risks of introducing infectious disease must be considered and assessed, in order to protect other horses. Your veterinary surgeon will help you with this.

In most cases, a mare only becomes available for use as a foster mare if she loses her own foal. Such a mare may be ‘advertised’ in the racing media, or via your veterinary surgeon’s practice. There is also the Newmarket Foster Mare Company (telephone number 01353 676119, www.newmarketfostermarecompany.co.uk) and other organizations that may be able to ‘hire’ a suitable foster mare until the foal is weaned. In some circumstances, such organizations may accept your foal in order to achieve the fostering process, or may send an experienced groom with a foster mare to stay at your premises until the foal is fostered successfully. Your veterinary practice or other local breeders may have heard of a mare who has become available for fostering due to the death of her foal, or alternatively of a foal that has become orphaned. Your veterinary surgeon can discuss the options available with you. Some large stud farms maintain a group of mares for their own use as foster mares. These mares’ own foals are weaned as required and then usually hand reared in a group. Some studs also offer an orphan foal hand rearing service where groups of orphan foals are reared in small groups with an older ‘aunt’ or ‘uncle’ horse for company.

The foal

Foals for fostering should ideally be less than 3 weeks of age as they are more difficult to foster after this time. All foals are born without natural protection against infection and if a newborn foal is to be fostered it is essential that it receives colostrum either from its own dam or from a donor source within the first 24 hours of its life. If it is not possible to obtain colostrum the foal should receive a hyperimmune plasma transfusion. Your veterinary surgeon will help you with this. For fostering to be successful, the foal must be strong and well enough to stand and nurse unassisted. It must be able to suck vigorously before any attempt at fostering is made.

Preparing the mare and foal for introduction

If the mare has lost her own foal at or near foaling ask if it is possible to have her own placenta, as this may be useful during the fostering process. The mare should be left in the box with her dead foal. It was once common practice to skin the dead foal and to use the skin as a ‘coat’ for the foal to be fostered. This technique is now considered unhygienic and unwarranted. Once the bereaved mare is quiet and calm, the dead foal should be removed and replaced with the foal to be fostered. Ideally there should be two or three capable people assisting a fostering process. The mare should be deeply sedated and held in a bridle by a competent handler. Many people apply a strong smelling ointment (such as Vicks Vaporub) to the mare’s nostrils to mask the smell of the foal, but this is not always helpful or necessary, depending upon the response of the individual mare. A twitch should be available in case it is needed. The mare’s udder should be clean and full of milk but not tight or painful otherwise she may resent the foal’s approaches. The foal should be allowed to become hungry by withholding milk for a couple of hours prior to introduction, but not weak by excessive withholding of food. Where possible its own smell should be masked by rubbing its coat with the foster mare’s own placenta or by fitting it with a clean foal rug.

The introduction

The introduction should be made in a relatively large, clean stable. The mare is held firmly and confidently with her hindquarters in a corner and the foal is introduced to her at the level of her shoulders, keeping the foal and handlers away from her back legs. The foal should be held so that the mare can see and sniff the new foal. The mare’s reaction is monitored closely. If very fortunate, her response will be to call and ‘talk’ to the foal immediately as though it was her own, suggesting that she will readily accept the orphan foal. More commonly, mares behave unpredictably and aggressively, attempting to bite, strike and/or kick at the foal. The mare must be clearly reprimanded for showing this type of behaviour. In such cases it may be necessary to apply the twitch, hold a front limb up or pinch a fold of skin just in front of the shoulder to see if this will distract the mare enough to allow the foal to approach her more closely. Some mares who may be frightened or otherwise upset by the sight of the new foal may respond to being blindfolded (see photo). The foal must not be put at risk and it must not be left unattended at this stage as initial apparent acceptance may ‘wear off’. Some mares may be ‘intelligent’ enough to wait patiently for an unguarded opportunity to be aggressive. Hind limb hobbles may offer some more protection to the foal if the mare is trying to kick. Even where fostering is successful it can take many hours and even days for the mare to fully accept the foal. The foal is usually happy to suck but will soon be discouraged if the mare behaves aggressively towards it or will not allow it to suck. At this stage it is useful to let the foal wander around in the stable slightly away from the mare so that she can see it and get used to its presence in her box. If the foal wishes to lie down, let it do so but at a safe distance from the mare. Every now and then encourage the foal to approach the mare and attempt to suck.

If the mare remains aggressive towards the foal in spite of combinations of sedation, twitch, voice and other restraint, it is not worth persevering and it will be necessary to try to obtain an alternative foster mare.

It may take only a few minutes or sometimes many hours or days to be sure that a fostering has been successful. Once the foal is sucking and moving freely around the stable without the mare threatening it or preferable with her calling and apparently accepting it as her own foal, sedation can be discontinued. Do not leave the mare and foal alone together until you are totally confident that acceptance is complete.

Some stud farms have designed and built specially constructed crates or partitions in which to restrain the foster mare, while the foal sucks conveniently and safely through a strategically placed hole (see photo). Whilst this technique can be helpful, convenient and labour saving, it is only safe and humane to use when the mare has almost completely accepted the foal. The mare and foal must nevertheless be closely observed.

Mare milk replacer must be available for use where the fostering process is going slowly, in order to provide the foal with essential nourishment and fluids to maintain strength whilst not abolishing hunger and the desire to suck. Experience suggests that most commercial mare’s milk replacers should be over diluted with milk to avoid the foal becoming constipated.

Conclusion

Fostering can be a very successful and satisfying exercise. Most mares make natural mothers and it is always nice to see a mare that has lost her own foal accepting another mare’s foal. Orphaned foals that are raised on foster mares are easier to manage, healthier and better developed both physically and mentally than hand-reared foals. Hand-reared foals seldom thrive and usually lack social development. However, if there is serious risk of injury to the foal during an attempt at fostering, or if a foster mare is not available, hand rearing may be the only option.

How should I prepare my mare for foaling during pregnancy?

Your mare should have been maintained in good condition throughout her pregnancy. Very poor or over fat mares often produce small foals. It is wise to vaccinate the mare against influenza and tetanus approximately one month prior to foaling as this will boost antibody levels in her colostrum (first milk) which helps to protect her foal against infections during its first few weeks of life. If your mare is to foal away from home, she should be moved four to six weeks prior to foaling so that she can develop specific antibodies to potential infections in her new environment. You should discuss with your veterinary surgeon whether you should also vaccinate your mare against Equine herpesvirus (EHV) or Rotavirus, depending on the relative risk of infection with these organisms.

You should have prepared a large clean stable which should be ready at any time should the mare start to foal. Mares should be foaled where they can be discretely observed and where help can be easily given if problems arise. In UK this usually means in a stable environment, although mares can be foaled outside if the weather is good and they can be clearly observed and helped if needed. The bed should be of good quality deep straw. Shavings and paper are not ideal bedding for foaling as they stick to the birth fluids and find their way into foals’ noses and other places that they should not be. The stable should be well lit and there should be a readily available supply of clean warm water. A first aid kit containing scissors, disinfectant, string, wound powder and towels should be on hand. Stud farms have cylinders of oxygen with the necessary control valve and soft rubber tubing in case the foal needs to be resuscitated and access to a stock of frozen equine colostrum and hyperimmune donor plasma in case these are needed to boost the foal’s immunity. Ask your veterinary surgeon to help you prepare the necessary facilities and equipment in good time prior to foaling to avoid last minute problems.

Foals are born after 11 months gestation (time in the mare’s womb). Thoroughbred breeders work on an average gestation length of 340 days to work out their ‘due dates’. Some mares foal earlier and some later. Foals are not usually viable if born before 250-300 days. Some older mares and others with chronic uterine problems sometimes ‘hang on’ to their foals for up to 350 days and, unusually even up to a full year. These overdue foals are often small and weak with signs of intrauterine growth retardation when eventually born. It is, in fact, the foal, via its hormones, which has ‘coarse control’ over gestation length. Mares have ‘fine control’ and their state of relaxation can determine at what time of day the foal is born. Most mares foal during the night, an instinctive means of helping to protect their vulnerable newborn foals from predators, but this cannot be relied upon and full term mares should be watched to make sure that they do not get into difficulty at any time during the day or night.

In the weeks leading up to foaling your mare will start producing milk resulting in gradual enlargement of her udder. This is called ‘bagging-up’. During the week before or on her foaling day small amounts of colostrum may ooze from her teats, creating wax-like droplets that stick to the tip of the teats. This is called ‘waxing up’. It is a sign that foaling is imminent, although individual mares can vary enormously in their timing. Maiden mares can be notoriously difficult to predict foaling as they can either wax up at the very last mninute or their udder can enlarge and reduce several times in the days or weeks before foaling. Close to foaling, the ligaments over the pelvis and under the tail head relax slightly giving a ‘dropped’ appearance to the hindquarters. During the 24 hours prior to foaling the mare may appear restless and uncomfortable and may re-arrange bedding as if ‘nest making’. These are signs of first stage labour. She should be moved to the foaling box as soon as it looks as though she is ready to foal.

The key to good management of foaling is to observe discretely without interfering unnecessarily. Closed circuit television can be used and can be very helpful but should not be relied upon. Foaling ‘alarms’ which work on a harness, head collar or vulval aperture sensor that detect sweating or prolonged lying down or opening of the vulva are available. Some mare owners have found these to be helpful but they cannot be relied upon. Small samples of mammary secretion early milk can be collected and tested with ‘dip stick’ tests for calcium and electrolyte concentrations to help determine whether mares are ‘ready for birth’ and likely to foal tonight. More usefully, mares can be examined to confirm that they are not ‘ready’ which may help to avoid unnecessary sitting up. However, mares behave very differently as individuals and from pregnancy to pregnancy and cameras, monitors and milk tests cannot be relied upon. There is no real substitute for experienced ‘sitting up’.

What is first stage labour?

During first stage labour, where the foal gets itself into the final birth position in the birth canal and the mare’s cervix relaxes, the mare will look restless and will get up and go down several times with abdominal discomfort. The mare will raise and lower her tail and produce small quantities of droppings and urine frequently. Most mares sweat but some do not. This stage may last for several minutes to several hours and ends when the mare ‘breaks water’, i.e. the placenta ruptures and allantoic fluid is released. Placental rupture can be differentiated from urination because the mare does not straddle in the urinating stance and the volume of fluid is too large in consideration of the fact that the mare has already passed small quantities of urine repeatedly.

Your veterinary surgeon should be called if your mare is excessively distressed or is in prolonged, non-productive discomfort. If the placenta does not rupture, it may appear at the vulva as a red velvety structure. This is called ‘red bag’ delivery and is a sign that the normal site of placental rupture is too thick and the mare is separating her placenta from the uterine lining to expel her foal. The foal needs the placenta to be attached to the mare’s uterus at this time to allow oxygen to pass across from the mare’s blood, i.e. it needs the placenta to ‘breathe’. If the red bag appears unbroken at the vulval lips it is important to tear or cut through it carefully but urgently or the foal may suffocate. This is an emergency.

What is second stage labour?

As soon as the first water bag ruptures (the mare’s point of no return’), you should carefully and gently examine your mare, with a clean hand, to make sure that the foal’s muzzle and two front feet are appearing at the vulva, covered by a thin white membrane (amnion). The feet are just ahead of the muzzle and one foot should be just ahead of the other. The foal can often be seen to move. If the head or one or both legs are back, or if more than two feet are present, or if only the foal’s neck or back can be felt, you should either correct minor misplacements yourself, if you are able to do so quickly, or call your veterinary surgeon immediately. While you are waiting for him/her to arrive, keep the mare up and walking around the box to prevent straining and the foal becoming impacted in the birth canal. This will cause less stress for both mare and foal and the veterinary surgeon will find re-positioning of the foal much easier. If the mare keeps trying to strain, another aid is to pull her tongue out of one side of her mouth. If the mare appears unable to expel the foal because it appears too big to come through the birth canal, or if the mare appears to ‘give up’, you should call your veterinary surgeon without delay. If you need to help the mare, pull one leg at a time when the mare strains. If you pull both legs together you will pull the widest part of the foal (across its shoulders) into the canal and this will make passage through the birth canal more difficult than it should be.

Once the placenta has ruptured, most mares will lie down for the quite rapid delivery of their foal. With the foal in the normal position foaling should progress normally. If the mare’s vulva has been stitched (Caslick’s operation, commonly performed to prevent ‘wind sucking’ in Thoroughbred mares) it will be necessary to cut through the line of healing (episiotomy) to open the vulva at this time (when the mare will often not notice) to avoid injury. Sharp, long-bladed, round-ended, bandage-type scissors should be used to cut a clean straight cut along the scar which shows the line of previous repair. You should ask your veterinary surgeon to instruct you in performing this task or, if you do not feel confident or sufficiently experienced, ask him/her to perform the operation ahead of time, when the mare is close to her ‘due dates’ and behaves as though she is ready to foal within the next few days.

The mare will usually lie on her side to push and the foal’s forelegs, head, trunk and hindquarters should be delivered within a few minutes. Second stage labour is a short and violent process, in contrast to first stage labour. The hindlegs may remain in the birth canal while the mare recuperates and until she moves or the foal starts to struggle. The umbilical cord should rupture naturally at a point of natural constriction that develops just below the umbilicus. There should be minimal bleeding unless the cord has broken prematurely. The cord should only be clamped and cut if it is too thick to break naturally or if it breaks prematurely and the foal is haemorrhaging. The umbilical stump should be treated with disinfectant solution (e.g. 0.5% chlorhexidine or iodine), spray or powder. The mare will usually turn to see and lick her foal and will often make a soft mumuring (called ‘nickering’) sound.

Occasionally, mares try to foal standing up. If this happens the foal should be supported as it is born, at the level of the mare’s vulva, so it does not fall to the ground and while the blood passes through the umbilical cord from the placenta. When the cord stops pulsing, it can be broken just outside the navel and the foal can be laid in the straw.

What is third stage labour?

This is the stage of placental release. During this stage the uterus contracts and this can cause the mare discomfort until the placenta is passed. When the mare stands, the placenta should be tied up into a ball so that it does not flap around the mare’s hocks and frighten her, she does not walk on it and tear it, and so that its weight will help its gradual separation from the mare’s uterus (‘cleansing’). When it drops from the mare it should be checked carefully to make sure that it is complete and, in particular, that both horn tips (blind ‘ends’ corresponding to the tips of the uterine horns) have been expelled and none has been retained inside the mare.

The placenta is normally passed within 1 to 4 hours of foaling. If the placenta has not come away by 8 hours, or the following morning, your veterinary surgeon should be called. Retained placenta can result in infection of the uterus, toxaemia, laminitis and even death of the mare, if left unattended.

What happens after the mare has foaled?

The mare usually stands and starts to lick her foal a few minutes after birth. She may squeal and ‘nicker’ at it and generally make a fuss over it. This is an important time of instinctive ‘bonding’ and this should not be confused by unnecessary human interference.

If the mare’s vulva has torn or if she was stitched, she will need to be re-stitched after foaling, usually during the next day.

Many mares will lie down again soon after foaling. This may be just to rest or may be because of abdominal pain (colic). She may scrape or roll indicating her discomfort. If this does not pass within an hour, or the pain gets progressively more severe, this may indicate complications (uterine artery haemorrhage, uterine or colonic rupture) and your veterinary surgeon should be called, without delay.

The foal should make attempts to stand and suck and should have achieved both within 4 hours of birth, usually within 1-2 hours. Ask your veterinary surgeon for his client information handout on the newborn foal.

If both mare and foal are bright and well there is no reason why they cannot be turned out into a small paddock for a few hours next day, providing the weather is suitable. Exercise is beneficial to help the mare’s uterus to recover after foaling and to help the foal to strengthen and its legs to straighten. If the foal has poorly conformed legs that might be damaged by exercise, seek advice from your veterinary surgeon before turning out.

Newborn foals are particularly susceptible to the traumas of birth and so if something does go wrong their condition can deteriorate very rapidly. It is important that even subtle abnormalities are detected early on so that action can be taken quickly, where necessary.

The normal newborn foal

As with most things there is a range of ‘normality’ but basically you should expect the following behaviour from a new born foal:

1. The foal should be born, usually front legs and head first, with its muzzle clear of the placenta or ‘red bag’ so that it can breathe for the first time as soon as it is born. It should be obvious from the movements of its nostrils and chest that it is breathing.
2. The foal’s eyes should be open and bright.
3. Immediately after birth, the membranes of the foal’s mouth and tongue may look quite a dark pink colour because of the normal pressures of the process of birth but the membranes should return to a normal light pink colour, relatively quickly, once a normal breathing pattern has been established.
4. Immediately after birth, the new born foal’s respiratory rate is rather high (60 breaths/per minute) and a new born foal’s heart rate, which can be measured by putting a hand on it’s chest just behind the elbow, should be in the range of 80 – 100/beats per minute.
5. Once the foal starts to recover from the stress of the birth process it should make attempts to rest on its brisket. This usually happens within a few minutes of being born. This aids respiration and indicates that the foal basically knows which way is up. It may make several attempts to stand before it is successful. It is important that the floor of the stable is well padded or well covered with bedding as injuries to the skin of the hocks can occur during this stage. Most normal foals will stand within 40 minutes to 1 hour of being born.
6. Once standing with some confidence and stability, the foal will start curling its tongue and should start to make attempts to suck from just about anything that it comes into contact with. This might include the mare’s elbows, nose, legs, the stable walls and you if you’re in the way. This behaviour just indicates that the foal is instinctively seeking out the udder. Most foals are sucking from the mare by 2 hours after birth and a veterinary surgeon should be called if a foal has not had a good suck of milk by 4-6 hours of age.

Other than udder seeking behaviour, foals of this early age are not terribly inquisitive about their surroundings. Having discovered the udder, they tend to go back for frequent small feeds and are quickly able to stand up and lie down again for a rest or sleep, as and when they choose. The mare’s teats should appear permanently wet or shiny, showing that the foal has been sucking and the foal should lie down and sleep after sucking, showing that it has been satisfied. The foal quickly establishes a ‘rhythm’ of frequent feeding and sleeping. In a normal foal any disturbance will quickly make it jump to its feet if its lying down. Over the next 12-24 hours the foal will become increasing interested in it’s surroundings, will have bonded closely with the mare so that it will call her if she is not in immediate sight and will follow her if she moves or is moved from one place to another. The foal should appear bright and alert and will develop periods of play by ‘prancing’ and ‘chasing’ around the mare between periods of feeding and sleeping. If all is well with mare and foal there is no reason why, weather permitting, they should not be turned out together for short periods in a small paddock even at this very young age.

What might go wrong?

The birth process and the first few hours of life are a very complex time as the foal makes the transition from life in the womb to life in the outside world. Some foals appear to be just ‘slow’ to adapt to their surroundings and suck, for reasons that are unclear. They are sometimes called ‘stupid’ and often look as though they may have a ’headache’, perhaps from the pressures of birth on blood vessels in their head and brain. The process of birth itself may be traumatic or the foal may be born with abnormalities. Abnormalities of the limbs may render the foal unable to stand properly with or without assistance. If the foal cannot stand it cannot suck the mare and a struggling foal will become weak from hypoglycaemia very quickly if it does not receive colostrum (the mare’s first milk), and then milk to nourish it. Damage to the brain, due to lack of oxygen, can occur in even the most apparently normal births and can result in a foal which does not develop a suck reflex or is totally unaware of it’s surroundings. It may just walk aimlessly around the box or in severe cases the foal may even start to convulse and make a noise like a barking dog. If the foal has developed an infection, most commonly from an infected placenta, during the later stages of pregnancy it may be born septicaemic and too weak or ill to be able to function normally. Septicaemic foals may not be too weak to stand. In any of these incidences or if there is any other reason that you do not feel that the foal is progressing as quickly as you think it should, your veterinary surgeon should be called without delay.

What is the importance of colostrum?

The first milk produced by a mare is thick, often yellowish in colour and honey-like in consistency. It is rich in antibodies against infection and is known as colostrum. Foals are naturally born without any antibodies of their own and until they ingest colostrum they are incapable of fighting infection. If the foal does not suck within the first 4-6 hours of life, it may be necessary to call your veterinary surgeon and ask him/her to administer the mare’s colostrum by stomach tube. If a foal has a good suck reflex but is unable to stand it is possible to feed the foal with the colostrum, which has been stripped from the mare, by bottle using a teat. Where a mare has ‘run milk’ prior to foaling, the colostrum may be lost. In these cases it is necessary to give the foal donor colostrum from another mare or another source of equine antibodies. You should speak to your veterinary surgeon, before the foal’s birth, if your mare has lost any amount of milk prior to foaling. It is important that colostrum is given within the first 12 hours of life because after this time the antibodies are not absorbed into the foal’s bloodstream and are just broken down by the foals digestive system, like any other food stuff.

What should I do if something doesn’t seem right?

If at any time you are worried that your foal is not progressing normally, you should call your veterinary surgeon without delay. A newborn foal can deteriorate very rapidly and the sooner help is obtained the better the chances are that your foal will survive and thrive. Do not adopt a ‘wait and see’ attitude as a little bit of experienced help might go a long way towards ensuring that you have a healthy foal and mare at the end of the day.

How is colostrum formed?

Colostrum is the thick, honey-like fluid that is present in the mare’s udder at the time of foaling. It is more concentrated than normal mare’s milk and usually contains very high levels of antibodies. The antibodies come from the mare’s blood and represent her own body’s response to the disease-producing microorganisms with which she has come into contact, and in response to the vaccines she has received during the weeks before the foal is born. Therefore these antibodies are relatively specific for the mare’s individual environment.

How does FPT occur?

There are several reasons why a foal may receive inadequate levels of antibody after birth. If a mare ‘runs milk’ prior to foaling, this will result in the loss of significant quantities of colostrum so that there is too little left for the foal to drink to guarantee adequate antibody intake. Some mares, either habitually or as an isolated occurrence, do not produce colostrum of sufficient quality, i.e. their colostrum has a low concentration of antibodies. In other instances the foal may be slow to suck either due to illness or weakness. There is a finite ‘window’ of time up to about twelve to eighteen hours after birth during which these antibodies can be absorbed into the foal’s blood stream without being digested in the intestine. Once this time is up it is no longer possible for ingested colostrum to provide the foal with useful antibody levels in its blood stream. Conditions that result in stress to the foal, for example a traumatic birth, death of or rejection by the mare can actually shorten the length of time that the foal’s intestines can absorb antibodies. This also reduces the amount of antibody that the foal ends up with in its blood circulation.

How can I tell if my foal is suffering from FPT?

If the mare has run milk or for some reason the foal has not sucked normally, there is a very good chance that the foal will be suffering from FPT. Even if everything appeared normal, it is possible that FPT has occurred. The only way to be sure is for your veterinary surgeon to take a blood sample from the foal to measure the blood level of antibodies (immunoglobulins, abbreviated as IgG). This test is normally performed on the second day of the foal’s life to give IgG levels time to ‘plateau’, but if you believe that your foal is at particular risk of FPT, a blood test can be performed any time after twelve hours of age and the results will give a helpful indication of the foal’s immune status.

How can FPT be treated?

In foals in which FPT has been diagnosed by reliable blood testing, blood antibody (IgG) levels can be boosted by the administration of plasma either from the foal’s own dam, a donor horse, or in the form of commercially produced plasma. The latter has the advantage that it only has to be thawed prior to administration but the disadvantage that it is not ‘location specific’ for the mare and foal. Performing a plasma donation from the dam or another donor involves collecting a large volume of blood, separating the plasma from the cell fraction and administering the resultant plasma to the foal. This tends to be time consuming and carries with it the risk that the plasma used for the transfusion also has low levels of antibody so that more than one transfusion may be required. Commercial frozen plasma is usually the most practical source although if the foal’s IgG is initially very low, a second plasma transfusion may be required.

How can I prevent FPT?

In order to help mares concentrate high levels of antibodies in their colostrum, it is a sensible routine to have them vaccinated against tetanus and equine influenza, a month before their due date. This will stimulate specific immunity against these diseases, which is helpful to the foal, but may also help the mare produce antibodies generally and less specifically.
If a mare starts ‘running milk’ close to foaling time, the colostrum can be stripped from her and stored in a domestic freezer until she does foal. Alternatively, donor colostrum, i.e. colostrum from another mare that has been stored frozen, can be administered to a foal within the first twelve hours of life. Any colostrum that has been frozen should be thawed gradually in warm water. Colostrum should never be thawed by microwave as this will damage the antibody proteins and reduce their efficacy. Colostrum should not be stored for more than 12 hours in a refrigerator, as the large proteins will decay.

If your foal is slow to stand or suck, or has limb problems which delay its capabilities, it should be helped to stand and suck or bottle-fed with colostrum stripped from the dam.

How can I get early warning that FPT may occur?

Many stud grooms now use a colostrometer (a hand-held refractometer) calibrated to measure IgG levels in colostrum. They express a small quantity of colostrum from the mare’s udder, as soon as she gives birth to her foal, and run the test (which takes just a minute or two). If the colostrum is of poor quality (low IgG level) then the foal can be supplemented by stomach tube or bottle with donor colostrum even before it has first sucked the mare. Your veterinary surgeon can help you obtain and set-up this test.

What symptoms are seen in a foal with FPT?

Initially, there are no recognisable abnormalities. The foal may appear to stand and suck normally and may appear very normal for days or even some weeks. Some foals will never show any abnormalities. Others, however, will succumb to infections involving the navel, one or more joints, the lungs or they may even develop septicaemia (generalised blood infection). The symptoms will vary but the foal normally has a fever, i.e. a high temperature, will become depressed, ‘off suck’ and, if the joints are involved, acutely (suddenly) lame. In any of these instances your foal should be seen by a veterinary surgeon as an emergency.
In conclusion, the neonatal period, i.e. the first few days of life, is a ‘high risk’ and very important time for the immediate and longer-term health and welfare of the foal. It is therefore very good ‘insurance’ to help maximise the quantity and quality of the mare’s colostrum, to make sure that the foal drinks as much as it can within the first 12 hours of life and to confirm that satisfactory transfer of immunity has occurred by asking your veterinary surgeon to perform an IgG blood test on the second or third day of its life.

The abortion of a well-grown foal is a distressing event and may be associated with dystocia (difficult foaling), requiring veterinary help. Depending on the cause of abortion (particularly with twin abortion and placental disease), early warning signs such as premature mammary development, vulval discharge or other signs of systemic disease (high temperature and colic) may occur. In other cases, notably with Equine Herpesvirus infections and umbilical cord twists, abortion occurs suddenly and without warning.

What causes abortion?

Pregnancies may fail for a multiplicity of reasons, involving infectious and non-infectious causes and involving abnormalities of the foetus, placenta and/or umbilical cord, or the mare herself. A detailed postmortem (necropsy) examination of the aborted foetus, the umbilical cord and the placental membranes is required to confirm the cause of the abortion and its likely affect on the mare and other in-contact pregnant mares. The Horserace Betting Levy Board (HBLB) publishes its Code of Practice annually and this emphasises the need for post mortem examinations to be performed, particularly to screen for contagious infections, and gives guidance to owners and veterinary surgeons about how this is best achieved. Your veterinary surgeon will help you organise for this examination to be performed, when required.

Up to 10% of equine pregnancies (after a positive 6-week pregnancy test) end in abortion. Most are due to non-infectious causes but a significant number are caused by viral or bacterial infections, some of which may be contagious. A small number are associated with fungal infections of the placenta.

What are the infectious causes of abortion in mares?

Equine Herpesviruses 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4) are common causes of respiratory disease in horses, particularly weanlings and yearlings. In pregnant mares, EHV-1 infection can cause abortion, stillbirth or the birth of a weak, failing and non-viable foal. ‘Virus abortion’, as this infection is widely known, may result in ‘abortion storms’, where large numbers of non-vaccinated in-contact pregnant mares ‘slip’ their foals. Where pregnant mares are vaccinated against EHV-1 and 4, single abortions are more common. In rare instances, EHV-4 can cause single abortions but has not been associated with ‘abortion storms’.

EHV enters the body via the respiratory tract. In some pregnant mares the virus may cross the placenta and infect the foetus, damaging the foetal lungs and/or liver in particular. Mares seldom show recognisable signs of respiratory infection and mares usually abort without warning anywhere from one week to several months after initial infection. The third month of pregnancy is considered a high risk period for pregnant mares to come into contact with EHV infection and this is a time when mares and foals are often returning home from being away at stud elsewhere, often with ‘dirty noses’. At this time of risk, batch isolation is a sensible precaution to try to minimise spread of infection to other susceptible pregnant mares.

Occasionally EHV-1 infection causes neurological disease with signs varying from slight hind limb weakness (ataxia, incoordination) and paralysis of the bladder (incontinence) to collapse and paraplegia.

There is no specific treatment for EHV infections but vaccines against EHV-1 and 4 are available to help with prevention. Vaccination is recommended from 4-6 weeks of age in all horses, in order to reduce the incidence of respiratory disease in the horse population in general and to reduce the incidence of disruptive EHV respiratory disease ‘down time’ in racing, sport and leisure horses in particular. One vaccine is licensed for use as an aid to the control of EHV abortion in pregnant mares and is recommended for use in all pregnant mares during their 5th, 7th and 9th months of gestation. Vaccination does not prevent all EHV abortions but virtually eliminates the risk of an ‘abortion storm’, which can be financially disastrous. Vaccination also reduces the incidence and severity of EHV respiratory disease on stud farms, reducing the spread of infection and therefore the risk of EHV abortion. The HBLB Code of Practice for the control of EHV abortion and the Thoroughbred Breeders’ Association (TBA) recommend EHV vaccination for pregnant mares.

When an EHV abortion occurs, the foetus, placenta and placental fluids are heavily contaminated with virus and can act as a source of infection to other pregnant mares. The HBLB Code of Practice recommends steps to be taken in the event of a suspected case of virus abortion. The foal and placenta or appropriately collected and preserved samples should be sent to an experienced equine pathology laboratory without delay for a detailed postmortem examination. The mare should be separated from other pregnant mares and kept isolated. No horses should move off or onto the premises until the results of the tests are known. If the results are positive for virus abortion, no animal should leave the premises for one month.

As a general principle, pregnant mares should not be in contact with weanlings, yearlings, young horses out of training or other show and performance horses. New arrivals should be isolated for 2-3 weeks and monitored for signs of infection (raised temperature, runny nose/eyes, cough) prior to being allowed to run with the other pregnant mares.

Epidemic EHV abortion can be financially ruinous to a studfarm and failure to vaccinate pregnant mares may turn out to be false economy.

Equine Viral Arteritis (EVA) is rarely seen in UK but is endemic (occurs commonly) in many non-Thoroughbred populations in mainland EU countries and is therefore always at risk for importation into our susceptible horse population. It is a disease that is officially ‘notifiable’ to DEFRA, with legal implications. EVA may cause systemic illness and abortion. Signs of infection vary in manifestation and severity but can include elevated temperature, depression, eye and nasal discharges, swelling of the eyelids and lower abdomen and scrotum. Conjunctivitis (‘pink eye’) is a warning although not confirmatory sign. EVA infection can occur without obvious symptoms and an infected stallion can act as a source of infection while showing no signs of disease. The virus lives in the accessory sex glands of carrier stallions. Such stallions are known as asymptomatic carriers or ‘shedders’, because they shed virus in their semen at natural mating or artificial insemination (AI). Virus is spread from the respiratory tract of infected mares and may quickly spread around enclosed, i.e. barn-type stables. If mares are infected during their pregnancy, the virus may damage the placental blood supply and they may abort. The aborted foetuses and their membranes are sources of spread of infection to susceptible, in-contact mares.

There is no specific treatment for EVA infections.

The HBLB Code of Practice recommends steps to be taken to prevent EVA. All imported horses should be blood tested negative prior to and after import into the UK. All breeding horses should be tested for EVA at the beginning of each stud season. Both natural infection and vaccination will cause a positive blood test result (‘titre’) and so it is important that vaccination records are kept in horse passports and a negative blood test should be obtained and recorded before the 1st vaccination. In mares with a positive blood test result a second sample should be taken two weeks after the first to make sure that the antibody levels have not risen significantly (‘seroconversion’). A similar or lower antibody level in the second blood sample (‘static or falling titres’) indicates that the mare has recovered from the infection and is safe to be covered (mares do not become long-term carriers). New horses should be kept in isolation until blood test results are available. If a stallion or colt has a positive result (or if there are seroconversions in other horses) and there is no history of vaccination, DEFRA or the local ministry must be notified immediately. In such cases, DEFRA will supervise further testing including semen culture before the horse is allowed to be used for mating, semen collection or teasing. If found to be a semen ‘shedder’, i.e. a carrier, the options are re-export, castration or euthanasia.

An inactivated EVA vaccine (Artevac, Fort Dodge/Pfizer) is available for use in some EU countries, including UK. A live EVA vaccine (Arvac, Fort Dodge) is used in USA. In UK only breeding stallions are recommended for vaccination, in order to reduce their chances of becoming semen shedders if they were to become infected. Mares are not recommended for vaccination because of the very low incidence of EVA in UK and because widespread blood testing on an annual basis can then be used to monitor the continuing ‘status quo’ and to diagnose individual infections that have occurred. Vaccination results in positive blood test results and therefore complicates surveillance. For advice on vaccination you should contact your veterinary surgeon. The Horserace Betting Levy Board and Thoroughbred Breeders’ Association recommend vaccination for stallions and teasers (see the HBLB’s Code of Practice).

If EVA infection occurs, DEFRA should be informed and mating, teasing and semen collection for AI should stop immediately. All clinical cases and in contact horses should be isolated and no horses should leave or enter the premises. Owners of animals that are, were or are due to arrive on the premises should be notified as should everyone who has received or is expecting shipped semen.

Bacterial and fungal infectionscan gain access to the placenta via the mare’s cervix, via her vagina, infecting the placenta (placentitis) and usually resulting in abortion. Many types of ‘opportunist’ bacteria can cause placentitis including Streptococcus spp. and Escherichia coli. These bacteria are found in the vagina of normal mares. Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Taylorella equigenitalis are potential venereal pathogens, which can cause abortion. Fungal infections of the placenta can also cause abortion in the second half of pregnancy.

Mares with poor vulval confirmation, who suck air into their vaginas when they walk and trot or who have had damage to their vulvas, vaginas or cervices as a result of foaling trauma are at increased risk of developing opportunist bacterial placentitis. Some mares respond to the placentitis with premature mammary development and this can be a warning sign. Some infected mares develop a purulent vaginal discharge that can be usefully examined in the laboratory to identify the infecting organism.

Placentitis caused by bacterial infection which arrives via the mare’s bloodstream is much less common than ascending infection through the cervix. Leptospiral infections, carried in rat and mouse urine, is an important cause of placentitis and abortion in mares in Kentucky and Ireland but has only recently been reported as a rare cause of equine abortion in the UK. Mares are initially infected by drinking contamined water or eating contamined herbage or food and so preventive efforts should be focused upon environmental condsiderations. Where multiple cases occur, measurements of leptospiral antibody levels in in-contact pregnant mares may identify those that may be treated with antibiotics active against leptospiral infection. Another important cause of abortion in Kentucky, but not yet reported in UK is an apparently blood-born infection with nocardioform bacteria now named Crossiella equi. It causes a characteristic focal infection of the ventral body of the placenta, with pus formation. The incidence of this type of abortion peaked some years ago and now appears less common.

Bacterial placentitis is difficult to treat successfully because by the time symptoms have developed the disease processes are already significantly advanced. Some antibiotics given systemically (either by injection or by mouth) do cross into the placenta and may control the infection but may be ineffective in controlling the damage to the placenta and foetus caused by infection. Anti-inflammatory drugs and medications are sometimes used to improve placental blood supply in addition to antibiotics.

To minimise bacterial and fungal infections, which may lead to abortion, stallions and mares should be swabbed prior to mating to rule out the presence of venereal pathogens such as Taylorella equigenitalis, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Infected horses should be treated appropriately and then three sets of negative swabs obtained before mating is allowed. All mares should have an endometrial (uterine) swab taken during oestrus prior to mating. If infection is present, treatment should be given and recovery confirmed before the mare is mated. The vulva should be stitched (Caslick’s operation) to an appropriate level if the vulval seal is not adequate.

What are the non-infectious causes of abortion in mares?

There are many non-infectious causes of abortion:

Congenital and developmental abnormalities are important causes of abortion in mares. Occasionally a foetus develops with a severe abnormality such as hydrocephalus (water on the brain), or physical deformity that means it is unable to survive beyond a certain stage of gestation. These foals are often aborted or stillborn. Such conditions are unusual and do not tend to recur in the mare. The cause is usually unknown.

Twin pregnancy used to be an important cause of abortion in mares. The placenta of a single foal normally occupies the whole of the uterus. When twins are present, the two foetuses have to share the uterine space resulting in a reduction of nutrition to both foetuses. Usually, one foetus dies and both are aborted soon afterwards. Occasionally, one is born alive and if large enough will survive but remain small. Only rarely do both survive. Routine ultrasound examinations of early pregnant mares have reduced the number of twin abortions to very low levels. Twin (and occasionally triplet) pregnancy can usually be diagnosed at 15 to 17 days, when experienced veterinary surgeons can reduce the twins to a singleton by gentle manual crushing, per rectum.

Umbilical cord abnormalities have become the most common cause of abortion in Thoroughbred mares in UK. The umbilical cord in the horse is normally approximately 80 cm long. Sometimes, and more commonly when the cord is longer than 80 cm, it becomes excessively twisted either on itself or around part of the foal such as one of the limbs or the neck. This results in strangulation of the foal’s blood supply and its death. Abortions due to cord abnormalities usually occur in the last third of pregnancy.

What other causes of abortion are there?

There are other miscellaneous causes of abortion. These include stress, malnutrition and trauma to the mare. Toxic causes (poisoning) can result in abortion if the placenta or foetus is affected.

Mare Reproductive Loss Syndrome (MRLS) is a condition observed in parts of USA during 2001 and to lesser degrees in 2002 and 2003, where large numbers of mares either aborted late with damaged placentae or lost early pregnancies with haemorrhage in their foetal fluids. The precise cause of the pregnancy losses has not been determined but it was related to ingestion of Eastern Tent Caterpillars. Research suggests that bacterial infection and perhaps toxins may have gained access to the mares’ blood streams via penetration of the tiny barbed hairs (setae) that occur on the outer skin of the caterpillars, when they were unavoidably eaten by the mares during an unusual caterpillar ‘plague’. The problem has been controlled by removing the black cherry trees on which the caterpillar population feed and make their ‘tents’. A similar condition was reported in Australia in 2004 and appeared also to be associated with hairy caterpillars. MRLS has not yet been recognised in the UK.

How can abortion be prevented?

Abortions will never be abolished but they can be kept at low numbers by good general gynaecological and obstetric management of broodmares and careful control of the pregnant mare environment. Epidemic EHV abortion can be controlled by vaccination of broodmares and EVA abortion by avoidance of importation of infection by following the advice of the HBLB’s Code of Practice.

· Can you financially support a horse?

Be honest with yourself about what else you’ll still want to do other than riding and caring for a horse. It is difficult to take a horse or Pony on holiday to Egypt for a week in the summer! And expensive for them to be in full Livery. Make sure you can financially support the dream, don’t think you can sort it all out later. It can be heartbreaking to be forced to give up your horse, as you will inevitably become much attached Remember that the cost of keeping can be as much as £5,000 pa.

· What do you want to do with your horse?

If you want just to have fun or you are looking for a companion, make sure you are looking at horses with affectionate natures, if you have competitive ambition look for horses with talent – possibly proven history of winnings or points. Even if you have a large budget to buy your horse, be totally honest about your riding ability or you could will find yourself having to part with the new love in your life or even worse become a victim of injury, riding can be a dangerous sport even for the most competent riders.

· What Is Your Budget?

Be realistic about your needs and your budget. If you don’t have lots to spend it will still be possible for you to find a suitable horse, be patient, do not rush into buying the wrong horse and be flexible with your search criteria. If you’re starting out in jumping, you don’t need an expensive Warmblood or Thoroughbred, try looking at All rounders or even cob type that may suit you better, it is important that you gain confidence and enjoy the sport and your riding, do not be tempted to out horse yourself. Be prepared to accept certain shortcomings in conformation, for example, if your funds won’t stretch to your ideal horse.

· Consider the Commitment and the time they will take up.

Consider your job and family commitments and your lifestyle. You may still be able to fit in a horse, but only with compromise, it may be that a horse share is a good compromise and will work really well for you, offering a lot of enjoyment, sharing the cost and the time commitment. You need to be good planning your time and be committed to hard work. When it comes to making your choice, remember that n older steady hack won’t demand as much of your time as a young competition horse that needs careful pampering and daily schooling.

· Ensure you have the knowledge to care for your horse correctly.

DIY means that you look after the horse yourself at the yard, this is hard work and time consuming, but will pay out less. Full or part-livery is a safer bet for those on a tight schedule or requiring support while they learn about caring for a horse, but the costs can mount up very quickly.

· Make sure you can cover all the additional costs that having a horse or pony involves.

Initial vetting fees, transport costs, tack including rugs, head collars, hay nets, feed buckets, water butts, bedding, tack, feed, hay/haylage, grooming equipment, field supplies, riding clothing, etc etc

· Consider what difficulties you could be left in if you’re unwell, injured or go on holiday, do you have someone who is willing and able to care for your horse or pony.

Sharing might be an option – talk to friend and other riders at your yard.

· If you are thinking of buying a second horse?

Have you decided what you intend to do with your present four legged friend? One horse can be expensive and time consuming, two is double the cost and double the time (double trouble, just like having twins!) in most cases, ensure you have the finances and the time to care for them properly.

Understanding the law when buying a horse

In the eyes of the law, horses are classed as goods and the same laws that govern other goods purchases apply to buying a horse. However, your protection depends upon whether the sale is a private or business transaction. Business sales, such as purchases through a dealer, are covered under the Sale of Goods Act 1979. Private sales fall under the ‘buyer beware’ category. For further information, see Julie Mackenzie’s book Horse Law (JA Allen).

Most reputable dealers will offer to exchange your horse within a set period of time if you are unhappy.

With private horse sales, it may not be possible to return the horse, you may have to put the horse in training or sell him on. If this happens, don’t put you off buying again. Do what you can to develop the horse to your needs and learn from the experience. Above all, don’t keep a horse that is not right for you it will spoil your enjoyment and empty your wallet!

All horses should now have a passport – ensure the horse you are enquiring about has got a passport already.

The mane and tail is the best place to start. Spray on a detangler and let it dry before removing the burrs from the tail and the long, unpulled mane. To start you should gently pick each burr out by hand and untangle the knots to your best ability before you use a comb since this will come in later steps.

Next you should use a currycomb to give the horse a good grooming that will loosen the dried mud or ground in dirt. Use a stiff brush and then finish off with a soft brush. The head and bony areas of the legs should be brushed with care and a softer grooming tool.

After the dirt is gone you should pick a warm day to give the horse a bath with an antifungal shampoo. Follow the direction on the label so that you can stop any potential or existing skin problems. Water repelling oils on the coat are removed during the bathing process so you should bath them when there is no forecast for rain otherwise you will want to give them a waterproof blanket or sheet before turning them out. The horse should have time for their natural waterproofing to return before they get wet.

Use a clean towel to dry your horse as completely as possible after the rinsing and scraping. Again spray the mane and tail with a detangler. A horse can be allowed to finish drying in comfort by covering them with an antisweat sheet and then a wool cooler in case the weather is still a bit chilly.

Use a cream rinse after washing if you have a horse with a long, tangled mane or tail. Human products work well, but there are also several products that are specifically made for horses. Use a wide toothed plastic comb to gently comb the mane. Use your fingers to pick out any bad tangles if necessary. It may be tempting to use scissors but the resulting mess will take months to grow out completely. You can put the mane at the desire length once you have completely gotten rid of any tangles.

Pulling on the tangles will not only thin but also shorten the horse’s mane and tail and over the winter naturally thin manes will have gotten longer so pulling can cause it to become too thin. A better option is to backcomb and cut to the desired length while using a stripping comb.

Caring for tails has some debate and many think the tails of a horse should never be combed. If you decide to brush you should start at the bottom of the tail with a soft brush and work upward. Use your fingers to loosen any bad tangles and brush out a few hairs at a time. This may be a time consuming process, but periodically using detangler spray can help you to maintain a beautiful and long tail with not much effort.

Trim the hair under the horses chin, the long whiskers on the nose, the hair that grows outside the ears and the long fetlock hair in order to have a good finished look. Leave the long hairs around the eyes and coronet band in addition to the hair inside the ears unless you plan on showing the horse. For spring checkups you should always schedule the horse for a visit with a farrier and vet.

The logistics of washing and shampooing a horse do require some pre-planning in order to avoid common mistakes that will cost you time and most likely also try your patience. Begin by picking out a spot that will not turn into a muddy mess as soon as you turn on the water. Similarly, find an adequate post to which to tie the horse and gather the supplies you will need. Consider wearing clothes that can get wet without leaving you soaked to the skin; find some rubber gloves to protect your hands, and get the shampoo.

When it comes to selecting the proper shampoo for your horse, you will need to resist the urge to simply use regular cleaners that are not specially formulated for these animals. If you wash your horse frequently, you will need to select a more gentle shampoo than if you only do so upon occasion. Additionally, there are several different shampoo formulas available, depending on your need. Purchase the kind of shampoo that matches your horses’ needs the best. Shampoos formulated for horses are pH-balanced for the animals’ sensitive skin which is also host to a number of beneficial bacteria which – if damaged or destroyed – will lead to severe skin problems.

Once you have chosen the proper spot to wash your horse and the animal is securely tied to a post, mix the shampoo with lukewarm water in an easily accessible bucket. The amount of water will depend on the concentration of the shampoo – be sure to follow the directions! Beginning with the animal’s feet and working upward, hose down the horse slowly and gently until you finish by wetting its back. After the animal is completely wet, use a sponge to transfer the soapy water to the animal. Work in the shampoo with a grooming mitt and do not be afraid to take your time until you are certain that the dirt, grime, and dead skin cells have been worked out. Hose away dirtied suds and apply soap once more. Ensure that the parts of the horse that have been shampooed do not dry out but instead keep them adequately moist. Keeping in mind that horses detest having their heads washed, be sure to use less shampoo so that you will have to do less rinsing. Cleansing of the nostrils and the inside of the ears should be done with a moist cloth. The tail can be immersed in a bucket of soapy water and then massaged in the same way that you would shampoo the hair on your head. A specially formulated conditioner for the tail and mane will round out the bath.

When you are ready for a final rinse, it is important to begin at the top and work your way down, being sure to wash out all of the shampoo to avoid a dull looking coat and irritated skin. While you are rinsing off the animal, continue to employ the grooming mitt. After the final rinse you will be able to remove excess water with a sweat scraper before you towel dry the animal. Some horse owners find that walking the animal after a bath until the coat has dried will minimize the chances of the horse rolling in dry, dusty hay to get dry.